Chapter 4 (Results) is where you present your findings—what the data shows without interpretation. This chapter is crucial because it's the empirical heart of your dissertation; everything else is context (introduction, literature), methodology, or implications (discussion). A poorly written results chapter confuses readers; a well-written one makes findings crystal clear. Chapter 4 requires balancing detail (enough information to understand results) with conciseness (not repeating every statistic). Tables and figures are essential—they communicate data efficiently where text would be tedious. Results sections must be objective (no interpretation, no editorializing) and complete (all hypotheses addressed, all analyses described). This guide covers Chapter 4 structure, what to include, how to present results clearly with tables and figures, and common mistakes to avoid.
Chapter 4 structure
Introduction/overview
- Brief opening: Restate research questions/hypotheses. Outline how you'll present results (e.g., "Results are organized by research question")
- Descriptive statistics first: Sample characteristics, means, SDs. Readers need context before diving into inferential tests
- Length: Short—just enough to orient reader
Main results (organized by research question)
- Logical organization: Follow the order of your research questions. Address each hypothesis in turn
- Text + tables: Narrative describes findings; tables show detailed statistics
- One section per research question:**RQ1 Results, RQ2 Results, RQ3 Results, etc.
- Subheadings okay:**If results are complex, subheadings help organize (e.g., "RQ1: Main Effects," "RQ1: Interactions")
Supplementary analyses or additional findings
- Assumption checks: If relevant (especially for parametric tests), note that assumptions were checked and results
- Post-hoc analyses: Follow-ups to significant findings (e.g., post-hoc comparisons after ANOVA)
- Alternative analyses:**Sensitivity checks (e.g., "Results hold when outliers removed")
Concluding paragraph (optional)
- Summary of findings: Brief recap of what was found across all research questions. A reader should be able to follow the chapter without skipping
- Brevity: Save full interpretation for Discussion chapter
Presenting findings in text
Statistical reporting in APA format
- t-test example: "Treatment group (M = 85.2, SD = 8.3) scored significantly higher than control group (M = 79.1, SD = 9.1), t(58) = 2.14, p = .036, d = 0.68."
- ANOVA example: "Performance differed significantly across the three training methods, F(2, 87) = 4.53, p = .013, η² = .09. Post-hoc Tukey comparisons revealed…"
- Correlation example: "Study hours and test score were positively correlated, r(48) = .67, p < .001."
- Regression example: "Hours studied was a significant predictor of test score (β = .45, t(98) = 4.67, p < .001), explaining 18% of variance (R² = .18)."
Separating results from interpretation
- RESULTS: "Participants receiving cognitive therapy scored higher than control participants."
- NOT results (this is interpretation): "The cognitive therapy intervention was effective, suggesting cognitive techniques improve outcomes."
- RESULTS: "Younger participants had higher scores than older participants."
- NOT results: "Youth appears to be an advantage in this domain."
- Key principle: State facts; save explanation and meaning for Discussion
Tables and figures
When to use tables
- Descriptive statistics: Sample demographics, means, SDs across groups
- Correlations: Correlation matrices (all variables intercorrelated)
- Inferential statistics: Test statistics, p-values, effect sizes organized by analysis
- Rule of thumb: If you're reporting 10+ numbers, use a table. If 1–3 numbers, put in text
When to use figures
- Patterns and trends: Line graph showing change over time or across conditions
- Distributions: Histogram showing distribution of scores
- Relationships: Scatterplot showing correlation between two variables
- Group differences: Bar graph comparing means across groups
- Complex interactions: Line graph with separate lines for each group shows interactions clearly
Table format standards (APA)
- Caption above: "Table 1. Descriptive Statistics for…"
- Professional appearance: No vertical lines; horizontal lines sparingly (top, bottom, header separation)
- Clear labels: Column headers and row labels describe what's shown
- Decimals: Consistent throughout (e.g., all M and SD to two decimals)
- Note with table: "Note. " line below table explaining abbreviations, significance levels, etc.
Figure format standards
- Caption below: "Figure 1. Mean test scores by treatment group."
- Axes labeled: X and Y axes clearly labeled with variable names and units
- Professional appearance: Clean, not cluttered; easy to read from distance
- Legends:**If multiple lines/bars, legend clearly identifies each
- Fonts: Readable size (typically 10–12pt for figure text)
Common Chapter 4 mistakes
- Repeating statistics verbatim from every table: Tables exist so you don't repeat every number. Summarize in text; tables provide detail
- Over-interpreting in results section: "This shows the intervention works." That's interpretation—for Discussion
- Disorganized presentation (not by research question):**Reader gets lost following all the results. Organize clearly
- Missing statistics or effect sizes:**p-values alone are insufficient. Always report effect sizes
- Tables too detailed:**Some tables are so crowded they're hard to read. Simpler is better
- No notation for missing data or dropouts:**If 100 started and 85 completed, this matters and should be noted
- Forgetting to address all hypotheses:**Every research question/hypothesis should be addressed in results
Chapter 4 checklist
- ☐ Introduction briefly orients reader to how results are organized
- ☐ Descriptive statistics presented first (sample, means, SDs)
- ☐ Results organized by research question/hypothesis
- ☐ All hypotheses addressed (none omitted)
- ☐ Statistics reported in APA format (test statistic, df, p-value, effect size)
- ☐ Results separated from interpretation (no evaluative language)
- ☐ Tables and figures used for complex data
- ☐ Table captions above, figure captions below
- ☐ All tables and figures referenced in text
- ☐ Missing data or attrition addressed
- ☐ Chapter flows logically; reader can follow without confusion
- ☐ Writing is clear and concise (no unnecessary repetition)
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Order Chapter 4 helpFAQ
Briefly if relevant. E.g., "Levene's test indicated unequal variances (p = .032), so Welch's t-test was used." But don't clutter the chapter with every diagnostic. Put detailed assumption checks in appendix if needed
Objectively: "There was no significant difference between groups, t(58) = 1.24, p = .22." Null results are still findings. Don't bury them or apologize
No. Keep Chapter 4 objective—state what the data shows. Interpretation (what it means, why it matters) goes in Discussion. Clear boundary between Results and Discussion
No magic number, but aim for clarity. If you need 30 tables, consider appendices for detailed breakdowns. Main chapter should have enough to be clear without overwhelming